fun/src/vm.c

#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include "vm.h"
#include "value.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>

static const char* value_type_name(ValueType t) {
    switch (t) {
        case VAL_INT: return "int";
        case VAL_STRING: return "string";
        case VAL_FUNCTION: return "function";
        case VAL_NIL: return "nil";
        default: return "unknown";
    }
}

void vm_clear_output(VM *vm) {
    for (int i = 0; i < vm->output_count; ++i) {
        free_value(vm->output[i]);
    }
    vm->output_count = 0;
}

void vm_free(VM *vm) {
    // currently nothing persistent allocated inside VM itself
}

/* forward declaration for helper used in vm_reset */
static void vm_pop_frame(VM *vm);

void vm_reset(VM *vm) {
    // Pop all frames (free locals)
    while (vm->fp >= 0) {
        vm_pop_frame(vm);
    }
    // Clear stack
    vm->sp = -1;
    // Free globals
    for (int i = 0; i < VM_MAX_GLOBALS; ++i) {
        free_value(vm->globals[i]);
        vm->globals[i] = make_nil();
    }
    // Clear output buffer
    vm_clear_output(vm);
}

void vm_dump_globals(VM *vm) {
    printf("=== globals ===\n");
    for (int i = 0; i < VM_MAX_GLOBALS; ++i) {
        if (vm->globals[i].type != VAL_NIL) {
            printf("[%d] ", i);
            print_value(&vm->globals[i]);
            printf("\n");
        }
    }
    printf("===============\n");
}

static void push_value(VM *vm, Value v) {
    if (vm->sp >= VM_STACK_SIZE - 1) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: stack overflow\n");
        exit(1);
    }
    vm->stack[++vm->sp] = v; /* take ownership of v */
}

static Value pop_value(VM *vm) {
    if (vm->sp < 0) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: stack underflow\n");
        exit(1);
    }
    return vm->stack[vm->sp--]; /* caller owns returned Value */
}

static void frame_init(Frame *f) {
    f->fn = NULL;
    f->ip = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < FRAME_MAX_LOCALS; ++i) f->locals[i] = make_nil();
}

void vm_init(VM *vm) {
    vm->sp = -1;
    vm->fp = -1;
    vm->output_count = 0;
    vm->instr_count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < VM_MAX_GLOBALS; ++i)
        vm->globals[i] = make_nil();
}

/* push a new frame, transferring ownership of args[] into frame->locals[0..argc-1] */
static void vm_push_frame(VM *vm, Bytecode *fn, int argc, Value *args) {
    if (vm->fp >= VM_MAX_FRAMES - 1) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: too many frames\n");
        exit(1);
    }
    Frame *f = &vm->frames[++vm->fp];
    frame_init(f);
    f->fn = fn;
    f->ip = 0;
    /* move args into locals 0..argc-1 */
    for (int i = 0; i < argc && i < FRAME_MAX_LOCALS; ++i) {
        f->locals[i] = args[i]; /* transfer ownership */
    }
}

/* pop current frame and free its locals */
static void vm_pop_frame(VM *vm) {
    if (vm->fp < 0) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: pop frame with empty frame stack\n");
        exit(1);
    }
    Frame *f = &vm->frames[vm->fp];
    for (int i = 0; i < FRAME_MAX_LOCALS; ++i) {
        free_value(f->locals[i]);
        f->locals[i] = make_nil();
    }
    vm->fp--;
}

void vm_print_output(VM *vm) {
    for (int i = 0; i < vm->output_count; ++i) {
        print_value(&vm->output[i]);
        printf("\n");
    }
}

void vm_run(VM *vm, Bytecode *entry) {
    /* reset instruction count for this run */
    vm->instr_count = 0;

    /* start with entry frame (no args) */
    vm_push_frame(vm, entry, 0, NULL);

    while (vm->fp >= 0) {
        Frame *f = &vm->frames[vm->fp];

        if (f->ip < 0 || f->ip >= f->fn->instr_count) {
            /* no more instructions in this frame -> implicit return nil */
            Value nilv = make_nil();
            vm_pop_frame(vm);
            push_value(vm, nilv);
            continue;
        }

        Instruction inst = f->fn->instructions[f->ip++];
        vm->instr_count++; /* count each executed instruction */

        switch (inst.op) {
            case OP_NOP:
                break;

            case OP_LOAD_CONST: {
                int idx = inst.operand;
                if (idx < 0 || idx >= f->fn->const_count) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: constant index out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value c = copy_value(&f->fn->constants[idx]);
                push_value(vm, c);
                break;
            }

            case OP_LOAD_LOCAL: {
                int slot = inst.operand;
                if (slot < 0 || slot >= FRAME_MAX_LOCALS) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: local slot out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value val = copy_value(&f->locals[slot]);
                push_value(vm, val);
                break;
            }

            case OP_STORE_LOCAL: {
                int slot = inst.operand;
                if (slot < 0 || slot >= FRAME_MAX_LOCALS) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: local slot out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                /* free previous local then move v into it */
                free_value(f->locals[slot]);
                f->locals[slot] = v;
                break;
            }

            case OP_ADD: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type == VAL_INT && b.type == VAL_INT) {
                    Value res = make_int(a.i + b.i);
                    free_value(a);
                    free_value(b);
                    push_value(vm, res);
                } else if (a.type == VAL_STRING && b.type == VAL_STRING) {
                    const char *sa = a.s ? a.s : "";
                    const char *sb = b.s ? b.s : "";
                    size_t la = strlen(sa);
                    size_t lb = strlen(sb);
                    char *buf = (char*)malloc(la + lb + 1);
                    if (!buf) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: out of memory during string concatenation\n");
                        exit(1);
                    }
                    memcpy(buf, sa, la);
                    memcpy(buf + la, sb, lb);
                    buf[la + lb] = '\0';
                    Value res;
                    res.type = VAL_STRING;
                    res.s = buf;
                    free_value(a);
                    free_value(b);
                    push_value(vm, res);
                } else if (a.type == VAL_ARRAY && b.type == VAL_ARRAY) {
                    Value res = array_concat(&a, &b);
                    free_value(a);
                    free_value(b);
                    push_value(vm, res);
                } else {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ADD expects both ints, both strings, or both arrays, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_SUB: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: SUB expects ints, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i - b.i);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_MUL: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: MUL expects ints, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i * b.i);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_DIV: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: DIV expects ints, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                if (b.i == 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: division by zero\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i / b.i);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_LT: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: LT expects ints, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i < b.i ? 1 : 0);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_LTE: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: LTE expects ints\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i <= b.i ? 1 : 0);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_JUMP: {
                f->ip = inst.operand;
                break;
            }

            case OP_GT: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: GT expects ints\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                push_value(vm, make_int(a.i > b.i ? 1 : 0));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_GTE: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: GTE expects ints\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                push_value(vm, make_int(a.i >= b.i ? 1 : 0));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_EQ: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                int eq = 0;
                if (a.type == b.type) {
                    switch (a.type) {
                        case VAL_INT:
                            eq = (a.i == b.i);
                            break;
                        case VAL_STRING:
                            eq = (a.s && b.s) ? (strcmp(a.s, b.s) == 0) : (a.s == b.s);
                            break;
                        case VAL_FUNCTION:
                            eq = (a.fn == b.fn);
                            break;
                        case VAL_NIL:
                            eq = 1;
                            break;
                        default:
                            eq = 0;
                            break;
                    }
                } else {
                    eq = 0;
                }
                push_value(vm, make_int(eq ? 1 : 0));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_NEQ: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                int neq = 1;
                if (a.type == b.type) {
                    switch (a.type) {
                        case VAL_INT:
                            neq = (a.i != b.i);
                            break;
                        case VAL_STRING:
                            neq = (a.s && b.s) ? (strcmp(a.s, b.s) != 0) : (a.s != b.s);
                            break;
                        case VAL_FUNCTION:
                            neq = (a.fn != b.fn);
                            break;
                        case VAL_NIL:
                            neq = 0;
                            break;
                        default:
                            neq = 1;
                            break;
                    }
                } else {
                    neq = 1;
                }
                push_value(vm, make_int(neq ? 1 : 0));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }


            case OP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: {
                Value cond = pop_value(vm);
                int truthy = value_is_truthy(&cond);
                free_value(cond);
                if (!truthy) {
                    f->ip = inst.operand;
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_CALL: {
                int argc = inst.operand;
                if (argc < 0) argc = 0;
                /* collect args in reverse (preserve order) */
                Value *args = NULL;
                if (argc > 0) {
                    args = (Value*)malloc(sizeof(Value) * argc);
                    /* pop args into array in reverse */
                    for (int i = argc - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
                        args[i] = pop_value(vm);
                    }
                }
                /* pop function value */
                Value fnv = pop_value(vm);
                if (fnv.type != VAL_FUNCTION) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: CALL expects function\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                /* push new frame and transfer args */
                vm_push_frame(vm, fnv.fn, argc, args);
                /* free args array (locals moved), free fnv (no-op for function) */
                free(args);
                /* note: fnv contains a pointer to the Bytecode, don't free here */
                break;
            }

            case OP_RETURN: {
                Value retv;
                /* if there's something on the stack -> return it, else nil */
                if (vm->sp >= 0) retv = pop_value(vm);
                else retv = make_nil();

                /* pop frame (free locals) */
                vm_pop_frame(vm);

                /* push return value into caller frame (or onto stack if no caller) */
                push_value(vm, retv);
                break;
            }

            case OP_PRINT: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                /* snapshot value at print time (deep copy arrays) */
                Value snap = deep_copy_value(&v);
                free_value(v);
                if (vm->output_count < VM_OUTPUT_SIZE) {
                    vm->output[vm->output_count++] = snap;  // store snapshot
                } else {
                    free_value(snap);  // prevent leak
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: output buffer overflow\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_HALT:
                return;

            case OP_POP: {
                if (vm->sp < 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: stack underflow for POP\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                free_value(v); // free the popped value
                break;
            }

            case OP_DUP: {
                if (vm->sp < 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: stack underflow for DUP\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value top = vm->stack[vm->sp];
                push_value(vm, copy_value(&top));
                break;
            }

            case OP_SWAP: {
                if (vm->sp < 1) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: stack underflow for SWAP\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value a = vm->stack[vm->sp];
                Value b = vm->stack[vm->sp - 1];
                vm->stack[vm->sp] = b;
                vm->stack[vm->sp - 1] = a;
                break;
            }

            case OP_MAKE_ARRAY: {
                int n = inst.operand;
                if (n < 0 || vm->sp + 1 < n) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: invalid element count for MAKE_ARRAY\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                /* pop n values into temp array preserving original order */
                Value *vals = (Value*)malloc(sizeof(Value) * n);
                if (!vals) { fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: OOM in MAKE_ARRAY\n"); exit(1); }
                for (int i = n - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
                    vals[i] = pop_value(vm); /* take ownership */
                }
                /* build array by copying values, then free originals */
                Value arr = make_array_from_values(vals, n);
                for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
                    free_value(vals[i]);
                }
                free(vals);
                push_value(vm, arr);
                break;
            }

            case OP_INDEX_GET: {
                Value idx = pop_value(vm);
                Value container = pop_value(vm);
                if (container.type == VAL_ARRAY) {
                    if (idx.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "INDEX_GET index must be int for array\n"); exit(1); }
                    Value elem;
                    if (!array_get_copy(&container, (int)idx.i, &elem)) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: index out of range\n"); exit(1);
                    }
                    free_value(container);
                    free_value(idx);
                    push_value(vm, elem);
                } else if (container.type == VAL_MAP) {
                    if (idx.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "INDEX_GET key must be string for map\n"); exit(1); }
                    Value out;
                    if (!map_get_copy(&container, idx.s ? idx.s : "", &out)) {
                        /* missing -> nil */
                        out = make_nil();
                    }
                    free_value(container);
                    free_value(idx);
                    push_value(vm, out);
                } else {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: INDEX_GET expects array or map\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_INDEX_SET: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                Value idx = pop_value(vm);
                Value container = pop_value(vm);
                if (container.type == VAL_ARRAY) {
                    if (idx.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "INDEX_SET index must be int for array\n"); exit(1); }
                    if (!array_set(&container, (int)idx.i, v)) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: index out of range\n"); exit(1);
                    }
                    /* v moved into array */
                    free_value(container);
                    free_value(idx);
                } else if (container.type == VAL_MAP) {
                    if (idx.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "INDEX_SET key must be string for map\n"); exit(1); }
                    if (!map_set(&container, idx.s ? idx.s : "", v)) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: map set failed\n"); exit(1);
                    }
                    free_value(container);
                    free_value(idx);
                } else {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: INDEX_SET expects array or map\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_LEN: {
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                int len = 0;
                if (a.type == VAL_STRING) {
                    len = (int)(a.s ? (int)strlen(a.s) : 0);
                } else if (a.type == VAL_ARRAY) {
                    len = array_length(&a);
                    if (len < 0) len = 0;
                } else {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: LEN expects array or string\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(a);
                push_value(vm, make_int(len));
                break;
            }

            case OP_ARR_PUSH: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ARR_PUSH expects array\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int n = array_push(&arr, v);
                if (n < 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: push failed (OOM?)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(arr);
                push_value(vm, make_int(n));
                break;
            }

            case OP_ARR_POP: {
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ARR_POP expects array\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value out;
                if (!array_pop(&arr, &out)) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: pop from empty array\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(arr);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_ARR_SET: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                Value idx = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY || idx.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ARR_SET expects (array, int, value)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                if (!array_set(&arr, (int)idx.i, v)) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: set index out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(idx);
                /* v already owned by array; push copy for return value */
                push_value(vm, copy_value(&v));
                free_value(v);
                break;
            }

            case OP_ARR_INSERT: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                Value idx = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY || idx.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ARR_INSERT expects (array, int, value)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int n = array_insert(&arr, (int)idx.i, v);
                if (n < 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: insert failed (OOM?)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(idx);
                push_value(vm, make_int(n));
                break;
            }

            case OP_ARR_REMOVE: {
                Value idx = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY || idx.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ARR_REMOVE expects (array, int)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value out;
                if (!array_remove(&arr, (int)idx.i, &out)) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: remove index out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(idx);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_SLICE: {
                Value end = pop_value(vm);
                Value start = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY || start.type != VAL_INT || end.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: SLICE expects (array, int, int)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value out = array_slice(&arr, (int)start.i, (int)end.i);
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(start);
                free_value(end);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_TO_NUMBER: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                if (v.type == VAL_INT) {
                    /* pass-through */
                    Value out = make_int(v.i);
                    free_value(v);
                    push_value(vm, out);
                } else if (v.type == VAL_STRING) {
                    const char *s = v.s ? v.s : "";
                    /* trim spaces */
                    const char *p = s;
                    while (*p == ' ' || *p == '\t' || *p == '\r' || *p == '\n') p++;
                    char *endp = NULL;
                    long long parsed = strtoll(p, &endp, 10);
                    /* skip trailing spaces */
                    while (endp && (*endp == ' ' || *endp == '\t' || *endp == '\r' || *endp == '\n')) endp++;
                    if (endp && *endp != '\0') {
                        /* non-numeric suffix -> 0 */
                        push_value(vm, make_int(0));
                    } else {
                        push_value(vm, make_int((int64_t)parsed));
                    }
                    free_value(v);
                } else {
                    /* nil, array, function -> 0 */
                    free_value(v);
                    push_value(vm, make_int(0));
                }
                break;
            }

            case OP_TO_STRING: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                char *s = value_to_string_alloc(&v);
                Value out = make_string(s ? s : "");
                if (s) free(s);
                free_value(v);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_SPLIT: {
                Value sep = pop_value(vm);
                Value str = pop_value(vm);
                if (str.type != VAL_STRING || sep.type != VAL_STRING) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: SPLIT expects (string, string)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value arr = string_split_to_array(str.s ? str.s : "", sep.s ? sep.s : "");
                free_value(str);
                free_value(sep);
                push_value(vm, arr);
                break;
            }

            case OP_JOIN: {
                Value sep = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY || sep.type != VAL_STRING) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: JOIN expects (array, string)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                char *s = array_join_with_sep(&arr, sep.s ? sep.s : "");
                Value out = make_string(s ? s : "");
                if (s) free(s);
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(sep);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_SUBSTR: {
                Value lenv = pop_value(vm);
                Value startv = pop_value(vm);
                Value str = pop_value(vm);
                if (str.type != VAL_STRING || startv.type != VAL_INT || lenv.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: SUBSTR expects (string, int, int)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                char *s = string_substr(str.s ? str.s : "", (int)startv.i, (int)lenv.i);
                Value out = make_string(s ? s : "");
                if (s) free(s);
                free_value(str);
                free_value(startv);
                free_value(lenv);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_FIND: {
                Value needle = pop_value(vm);
                Value hay = pop_value(vm);
                if (hay.type != VAL_STRING || needle.type != VAL_STRING) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: FIND expects (string, string)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int idx = string_find(hay.s ? hay.s : "", needle.s ? needle.s : "");
                free_value(hay);
                free_value(needle);
                push_value(vm, make_int(idx));
                break;
            }

            case OP_CONTAINS: {
                Value needle = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: CONTAINS expects (array, value)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int ok = array_contains(&arr, &needle);
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(needle);
                push_value(vm, make_int(ok ? 1 : 0));
                break;
            }

            case OP_INDEX_OF: {
                Value needle = pop_value(vm);
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: INDEX_OF expects (array, value)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int idx = array_index_of(&arr, &needle);
                free_value(arr);
                free_value(needle);
                push_value(vm, make_int(idx));
                break;
            }

            case OP_CLEAR: {
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: CLEAR expects array\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                array_clear(&arr);
                free_value(arr);
                push_value(vm, make_int(0));
                break;
            }

            case OP_ENUMERATE: {
                Value arr = pop_value(vm);
                if (arr.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ENUMERATE expects array\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int n = array_length(&arr);
                if (n < 0) n = 0;
                Value *pairs = (Value*)malloc(sizeof(Value) * n);
                for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
                    Value elem;
                    array_get_copy(&arr, i, &elem);
                    Value kv_vals[2];
                    kv_vals[0] = make_int(i);
                    kv_vals[1] = elem;
                    Value kv = make_array_from_values(kv_vals, 2);
                    /* kv_vals[1] (elem) already moved, free temp copies: */
                    free_value(kv_vals[0]);
                    free_value(kv_vals[1]);
                    pairs[i] = kv;
                }
                Value out = make_array_from_values(pairs, n);
                for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) free_value(pairs[i]);
                free(pairs);
                free_value(arr);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_ZIP: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_ARRAY || b.type != VAL_ARRAY) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: ZIP expects (array, array)\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                int na = array_length(&a);
                int nb = array_length(&b);
                int n = na < nb ? na : nb;
                if (n < 0) n = 0;
                Value *pairs = (Value*)malloc(sizeof(Value) * n);
                for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
                    Value av, bv;
                    array_get_copy(&a, i, &av);
                    array_get_copy(&b, i, &bv);
                    Value kv_vals[2];
                    kv_vals[0] = av;
                    kv_vals[1] = bv;
                    Value kv = make_array_from_values(kv_vals, 2);
                    free_value(kv_vals[0]);
                    free_value(kv_vals[1]);
                    pairs[i] = kv;
                }
                Value out = make_array_from_values(pairs, n);
                for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) free_value(pairs[i]);
                free(pairs);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_MIN: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "MIN expects ints\n"); exit(1); }
                push_value(vm, make_int(a.i < b.i ? a.i : b.i));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_MAX: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "MAX expects ints\n"); exit(1); }
                push_value(vm, make_int(a.i > b.i ? a.i : b.i));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_CLAMP: {
                Value hi = pop_value(vm);
                Value lo = pop_value(vm);
                Value x = pop_value(vm);
                if (x.type != VAL_INT || lo.type != VAL_INT || hi.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "CLAMP expects ints\n"); exit(1); }
                int64_t v = x.i;
                if (v < lo.i) v = lo.i;
                if (v > hi.i) v = hi.i;
                push_value(vm, make_int(v));
                free_value(x); free_value(lo); free_value(hi);
                break;
            }

            case OP_ABS: {
                Value x = pop_value(vm);
                if (x.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "ABS expects int\n"); exit(1); }
                int64_t v = x.i;
                if (v < 0) v = -v;
                push_value(vm, make_int(v));
                free_value(x);
                break;
            }

            case OP_POW: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "POW expects ints\n"); exit(1); }
                /* simple integer pow */
                int64_t base = a.i;
                int64_t exp = b.i;
                int64_t res = 1;
                if (exp < 0) { res = 0; } else {
                    while (exp > 0) {
                        if (exp & 1) res *= base;
                        base *= base;
                        exp >>= 1;
                    }
                }
                push_value(vm, make_int(res));
                free_value(a); free_value(b);
                break;
            }

            case OP_RANDOM_SEED: {
                Value seed = pop_value(vm);
                if (seed.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "RANDOM_SEED expects int\n"); exit(1); }
                srand((unsigned int)seed.i);
                free_value(seed);
                push_value(vm, make_int(0));
                break;
            }

            case OP_RANDOM_INT: {
                Value hi = pop_value(vm);
                Value lo = pop_value(vm);
                if (lo.type != VAL_INT || hi.type != VAL_INT) { fprintf(stderr, "RANDOM_INT expects (int, int)\n"); exit(1); }
                int64_t a = lo.i, b = hi.i;
                if (b <= a) { push_value(vm, make_int((int64_t)a)); free_value(lo); free_value(hi); break; }
                int64_t span = b - a;
                int64_t r = (int64_t)(rand() % (span));
                push_value(vm, make_int(a + r));
                free_value(lo); free_value(hi);
                break;
            }

            case OP_MAKE_MAP: {
                int pairs = inst.operand;
                if (pairs < 0) { fprintf(stderr, "MAKE_MAP invalid pair count\n"); exit(1); }
                Value m = make_map_empty();
                for (int i = 0; i < pairs; ++i) {
                    Value val = pop_value(vm);
                    Value key = pop_value(vm);
                    if (key.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "Map literal keys must be strings\n"); exit(1); }
                    if (!map_set(&m, key.s ? key.s : "", val)) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "Map literal set failed\n"); exit(1);
                    }
                    free_value(key);
                    /* val ownership moved */
                }
                push_value(vm, m);
                break;
            }

            case OP_KEYS: {
                Value m = pop_value(vm);
                if (m.type != VAL_MAP) { fprintf(stderr, "KEYS expects map\n"); exit(1); }
                Value arr = map_keys_array(&m);
                free_value(m);
                push_value(vm, arr);
                break;
            }

            case OP_VALUES: {
                Value m = pop_value(vm);
                if (m.type != VAL_MAP) { fprintf(stderr, "VALUES expects map\n"); exit(1); }
                Value arr = map_values_array(&m);
                free_value(m);
                push_value(vm, arr);
                break;
            }

            case OP_HAS_KEY: {
                Value key = pop_value(vm);
                Value m = pop_value(vm);
                if (m.type != VAL_MAP || key.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "HAS_KEY expects (map, string)\n"); exit(1); }
                int ok = map_has(&m, key.s ? key.s : "");
                free_value(m); free_value(key);
                push_value(vm, make_int(ok ? 1 : 0));
                break;
            }

            case OP_READ_FILE: {
                Value path = pop_value(vm);
                if (path.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "READ_FILE expects string\n"); exit(1); }
                const char *p = path.s ? path.s : "";
                FILE *f = fopen(p, "rb");
                if (!f) { free_value(path); push_value(vm, make_string("")); break; }
                if (fseek(f, 0, SEEK_END) != 0) { fclose(f); free_value(path); push_value(vm, make_string("")); break; }
                long sz = ftell(f);
                if (sz < 0) { fclose(f); free_value(path); push_value(vm, make_string("")); break; }
                rewind(f);
                char *buf = (char*)malloc((size_t)sz + 1);
                size_t n = buf ? fread(buf, 1, (size_t)sz, f) : 0;
                fclose(f);
                if (!buf) { free_value(path); push_value(vm, make_string("")); break; }
                buf[n] = '\0';
                Value out = make_string(buf);
                free(buf);
                free_value(path);
                push_value(vm, out);
                break;
            }

            case OP_WRITE_FILE: {
                Value data = pop_value(vm);
                Value path = pop_value(vm);
                if (path.type != VAL_STRING || data.type != VAL_STRING) { fprintf(stderr, "WRITE_FILE expects (string, string)\n"); exit(1); }
                const char *p = path.s ? path.s : "";
                FILE *f = fopen(p, "wb");
                int ok = 0;
                if (f) {
                    size_t len = data.s ? strlen(data.s) : 0;
                    ok = (fwrite(data.s ? data.s : "", 1, len, f) == len);
                    fclose(f);
                }
                free_value(path);
                free_value(data);
                push_value(vm, make_int(ok ? 1 : 0));
                break;
            }

            case OP_LOAD_GLOBAL: {
                int idx = inst.operand;
                if (idx < 0 || idx >= VM_MAX_GLOBALS) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: global index out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                push_value(vm, copy_value(&vm->globals[idx]));
                break;
            }

            case OP_STORE_GLOBAL: {
                int idx = inst.operand;
                if (idx < 0 || idx >= VM_MAX_GLOBALS) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: global index out of range\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                free_value(vm->globals[idx]);
                vm->globals[idx] = v;
                break;
            }

            case OP_MOD: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                if (a.type != VAL_INT || b.type != VAL_INT) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime type error: MOD expects ints, got %s and %s\n",
                            value_type_name(a.type), value_type_name(b.type));
                    exit(1);
                }
                if (b.i == 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: modulo by zero\n");
                    exit(1);
                }
                Value res = make_int(a.i % b.i);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, res);
                break;
            }

            case OP_AND: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                int res = value_is_truthy(&a) && value_is_truthy(&b);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, make_int(res));
                break;
            }

            case OP_OR: {
                Value b = pop_value(vm);
                Value a = pop_value(vm);
                int res = value_is_truthy(&a) || value_is_truthy(&b);
                free_value(a);
                free_value(b);
                push_value(vm, make_int(res));
                break;
            }

            case OP_NOT: {
                Value v = pop_value(vm);
                int res = !value_is_truthy(&v);
                free_value(v);
                push_value(vm, make_int(res));
                break;
            }

            default:
                if (!opcode_is_valid(inst.op)) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Runtime error: unknown opcode %d (%s) at instruction %d\n",
                            inst.op,
                            (inst.op >= 0 && inst.op < sizeof(opcode_names)/sizeof(opcode_names[0]))
                                ? opcode_names[inst.op] : "???",
                            f->ip - 1);
                    exit(1);
                }
                break;
        }
    }
}